In the fourth century, Gallic warriors had settled along the Po and had invaded Central Italy (even capturing Rome in July 387). To explain its lack of success, Caesar intimated that his expedition had been a mere dress rehearsal for a full-scale assault, planned for the following year. Subscribe here to receive British Heritage Travel's print magazine! Gaius Julius Caesar was a celebrated Roman general and statesman, the conqueror of Gaul (58–50 BCE ), victor in the Civil War of 49–45, and dictator (46–44). was almost over, but Caesar was determined to solidify his hold on the Roman imagination by staging one more military spectacle before the winter began—a foray across the sea to the mythic island of Britain. As Caesar approached the White Cliffs of Dover, he found an impressive sight awaiting him. Caesar, however, was not interested in a compromise. Julius Caesar first landed in Britain on August 26th, 55 BC, but it was almost another hundred years before the Romans actually conquered Britain in AD 43. The triumvirate had pressured Cicero to support its plans two years before, but Caesar went well beyond treating Cicero merely as a useful tool. As a non-Classicist, I think he conquered Gaul and Britain, and brought the Roman Republic to an end by crossing the Rubicon. Caesar eventually penetrated into Middlesex and crossed the Thames, forcing the British warlord Cassivel… It was fortunate for them that Caesar, lacking his cavalry, could order no pursuit. Thus it was on a clear morning in the late summer of 55 B.C. The infant granddaughter of Caesar had survived only a few days after her mother’s death. The work most relevant to Roman Britain, however, is his biography of his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who served as Governor of Britannia from 78 to 84 AD. The great beast lumbered into the Thames, with a shower of arrows and stones pouring down from the tower. The force was so imposing that the Britons did not dare contest Caesar's landing in Kent, waiting instead until he began to move inland. They were even able to forge the nails that held the timbers together. März 44 v. Chr. Julius Caesar. Written during the last days of the Roman Republic, a young Julius Caesar makes his impact on the German and Gallic tribes. In 55 B.C., Julius Caesar was actively involved in a campaign against the native peoples of Gaul. The natives were much more cautious than the previous year, dashing out of a thick forest on horseback and in chariots to strike the Roman lines, then rushing back for the cover of the trees. II. Caesar left strong garrisons on either end of the long wooden bridge to defend against any Gaulish or German attempts to destroy it and trap his army; then he and his men marched boldly into Germany. The Romans nevertheless snuck up on the fortress from two sides and rushed the stronghold, killing many of the British, though the king himself escaped. This includes his Gallic Wars and Civil Wars, plus three shorter works which may have been written by Aulus Hirtius (who is also credited with the 8th book of the Gallic Wars ). The summer of 1951 was a special one in the United Kingdom. The news awaiting Caesar on his return to Gaul could not have been more grim. Circa 50 BC, Julius Caesar (102 BC - 44 BC) as dictator of Rome wearing a crown of laurel and holding a symbol of officeHulton Archive/Getty. All rights reserved. He opened it and learned that his beloved daughter, Julia, his only child and the wife of Pompey, had died in childbirth just days before. It kept the Britons away long enough for them to finish repairing some of their ships and send them to Boulogne to fetch more materials. During the nine-year-long Battle for Gaul, Julius Caesar fought his way across northwest Europe. Key facts about Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain. As a political idea, Caesar exhibits from the very beginning a tension between his role as dictator and destroyer of the Republic and his standing as the political and military genius who founded the Empire. Introduction The Amsterdam Caesar Codex. by Ludwig Dyck. Cassivellaunus, in his growing isolation, persuaded the four kings of Kent to attack Caesar's base camp and so draw the Romans away to defend it. Some of the Germans tried to make a desperate stand amid the baggage carts, but tens of thousands were cut down as they fled, including many women and children. Gaius Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC) Gaius Julius Caesar was born most likely on 13th July (originally Quinctilis, but renamed in honor of Caesar after his death) in the year 100 BC. But the Veneti had refused to talk. Caesar’s fate – and that of the Roman Republic – hung in the balance as the Battle of Pharsalus began in earnest. The Aeduan leader was much too dangerous a man to leave untended in Gaul while most of the Roman army was across the sea. They were perfectly aware that their only link to the civilized world was gone. The Romans then returned to camp while the native chiefs sent messengers far and wide collecting even more troops to push Caesar and his men into the sea. Caesar did, however, finally take to heart that ships could not be left lying unprotected on North Sea beaches. The Celts returned to Britain accompanied by Caesar's ambassador, Commius, King of the Atrebates, one of the Gallic tribes. The Celts knew that Caesar would not doubt the sincerity of this; arrogant and accustomed to success as he was, he took this submission as his natural right. Unlucky in love, Catullus had also failed to reap any expected profit from recent service on the staff of the Roman governor of Bithynia. Taken by Andreas Wahra in March 1997 Unlike Veneti ships, they would be fitted with both sails and oars to allow for rapid movement with or without wind. But at sunrise, word arrived from Caesar’s fort on the beach that nearly all the ships had been damaged yet again by a sudden squall during the night. Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. All that remained at anchor was a pitiful row of storm-battered hulks. Undoubtedly cursing his luck, he nevertheless decided to launch the invasion without cavalry support, trusting to fate that they would arrive in Britain close behind him. <. In this goal, he succeeded admirably. In spite of the renewed spirit the standard-bearer had given the troops, their fight to gain the shore was a chaotic struggle hampered by the more maneuverable British warriors. Chief among these was the Greek scientist Pytheas of Massalia, who had sailed to Britain, Ireland, and perhaps even Iceland during the age of Alexander the Great. Pliny the Elder merely tells us that it was the same breadth as Britain, but two hundred miles shorter, adding that the shortest route by sea to Ireland was thirty miles. The Roman galleys sailed northeast towards Deal, and the Celts walked and rode along the clifftops, pacing the ships. Caesar records that the Britons considered certain birds, along with all hares, sacred and would never eat them. Julius Caesar's Invasion Britannia occurred eighty years (55 and 54 BC) prior to Claudius' invasion in 43 AD, historical and archaeological evidence suggests the military excursion was not a momentary diversion from his conquest of Gaul. 16th century illustration by Virgil Solis for Ovid's Metamorphoses which depicts the deification of Julius Caesar.. He was particularly worried by the German incursion into Gaul since it threatened to destabilize the whole country. The presence of hundreds of Caesar’s veteran legionaries in the Forum was enough to assure the consulship for Pompey and Crassus. Britain - Julius Caesar - by Philip Freeman. BRITAIN. Caesar ordered public gladiatorial games and a banquet in her honor in Rome—an honor unprecedented for a woman. The Gallic rebels had proven to be a challenge to the invading Roman armies which Caesar led from 58 to 52 B.C. They just needed a few days to work out the details. The ambassadors told Caesar they were willing to settle as Roman allies anywhere in Gaul he might direct them, but they were definitely not going back across the Rhine. He could clearly see that Britain posed a backdoor threat to his latest and greatest conquest (France) whose subjugation Caesar had now enforced after eight years' hard campaigning. Caesar proceeded with caution through the early autumn countryside of Kent on the way to his battle with Cassivellaunus and his British allies. This selection from Caesar's Gallic War, intended for use in schools, includes the following passages in Latin: Book IV, chapters 20-36, and Book V, chapters 8-23. Caesar raised his ransom, raised a naval force, captured his captors, and had them crucified—all this as a private individual holding no public office. With practice, the British could rush down steep hills in their chariots, turn on a moment’s notice, and even dash out onto the yoke while their horses galloped at full speed. Julius Caesar (100—44 BCE) changed Rome forever. Written in 1599 (the same year as Henry V) or 1600, probably for the opening of the Globe Theatre on the While all of Rome was celebrating Caesar’s victories in Germany and Britain, Cato rose to denounce him on the Senate floor. Miles away at the Roman camp, the guards on the walls noticed an unusual amount of dust rising from the direction in which the soldiers had set off. Elfinspell: 55 B.C., Julius Caesar's Description of the Britons and their customs, De Bello Gallico, translated by Cheyney, Edward P., Readings in English, History of the Classical Period, Roman Britain, primary source, Geography, Exploration, Antiquity, (PrimarySource55BCBritons [ Back] [ Blueprint] [ Next ] 5.0 out of 5 stars Nice Survey of Caesar's Writings, decent translation Reviewed in the United States on November 16, 2008 This work contains full translations of The Gallic War and The Civil War, which are among the most important documents authored by Caesar (and arguably the latter is more significant). Caesar was undoubtedly sincere, but again the true value in such an expedition was the publicity it would generate back in Rome. What a wonderful letter you sent me about Britain! The optimates, however, were once again ready to demonstrate that they could cause considerable trouble for Caesar and his colleagues even if they could not block them outright. Julius Caesar first landed in Britain on August 26th, 55 BC, but it was almost another hundred years before the Romans actually conquered Britain in AD 43. At the festival of Lupercal, a fortune-teller advises Caesar to beware of a specific date, the Ides of March. I was terrified for your sake concerning the sea and coast of that island…You write about such amazing things you saw there—the countryside, wonders of nature, interesting places, customs, tribes, battles—and of course your commander himself. Somewhere near what would one day be the cathedral town of Canterbury, Caesar finally saw the British. The envoys of the Usipetes and Tencteri were understandably cool to this proposal. However, in the midst of this conflict, Caesar made the unusual decision to turn his attention to a new locale, Britain. The Romans were obviously in desperate straits, so the British secretly begin gathering their troops. As this has no parallels in other early Celtic societies, it may be that Caesar misunderstood the inner workings of British households or was deliberately pandering to his Roman readers, who quite expected such scandalous behavior from distant barbarians. Caesar not only needed their contribution to his invasion force as they had the best cavalry in Gaul, but he could not afford to leave a rebellious tribe in his rear to stir up trouble. When their ambassadors approached the Roman camp the next day to explain that the battle had been a misunderstanding and that they needed just a few more days to consider his proposal, Caesar had them arrested. However, Rome's military success had come at a serious cost to the political situation in the home city, which was governed by a senate. On top of all this planks and woven branches formed the roadway on which the troops would march. Caesar writes that some Belgic tribes had even sent recruiting parties across the Rhine seeking other German tribes who might aid them in a new revolt against Rome. Photo: Hulton Archive/Getty Images Quick Facts Name Julius Caesar Birth Date c. July 12, 0100 BCE Death Date March 15, 0044 BCE Did You Know? How could Cato and the optimates—not to mention Pompey and Crassus—hope to complete with a man who could lead his troops to a land as mysterious to the average Roman as the far side of the moon? Now the unmistakable smell of autumn was in the air and Caesar, aware that time was running out, resorted to subversive tactics. Caesar in Africa. Those less badly damaged were dragged up on the beach and for ten days the Romans worked around the clock to repair them. When Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 B.C., it might have been because he was displeased by the help the British tribes in the south the east provided Gaul. Although he gives the impression that they were reconnaissance expeditions, it is fairly clear that on the second visit he was determined on the conquest of Britain which, however, was not carried through. He comments on the roughly triangular shape of the island and is tolerably accurate on its overall size, even though he saw only a small portion of the southeast. At Caesar’s camp, the same storm struck his own troop transports drawn up on shore. This speech was a purely political move as Cato cared no more for the Germans than he did for the common people of Rome, but it elicited a bitter reaction from Caesar. Gaius Julius Caesar: Writings. Julius Caesar. Caesar quickly reached Pirustae territory, then called their leaders to a conference, warning them that unless they wanted him to wage a crushing war on them as he had done against troublesome tribes in Gaul, they would immediately cease their raids and make reparations. Caesar was indeed deeply offended by these poems, especially as they called to mind his alleged affair with King Nicomedes—a bitterly resented slur that he had been battling all his life. No comments. Before Roman occupation the island was inhabited by a diverse number of tribes that are generally believed to be of Celtic origin, collectively known as Britons. But imaginary omens did not interfere soon thereafter when the triumvirate bribed enough voters to elect their supporter Publius Vatinius in Cato’s place. Caesar never achieved a full invasion of Britain, but his two expeditions to the islands mark an important turning point. The legions were trained to fight in set battles or protracted sieges, not dozens of simultaneous skirmishes. When facing piles had been placed in the river upstream, crossbeams were fixed on top to connect them. Caesar had already tried to extract this information from the Veneti, a tribe living in Britanny who traded regularly with the British. In this way the Germans managed to kill many horsemen, including two Gaulish noblemen Caesar counted as friends. The bleak dawn that followed revealed a beach littered with the wreckage of Caesar's transports. He was content now to nibble at the Romans, by sending out raiding parties and staging a few ambushes, knowing that sooner or later, Caesar would have to take the initiative. The sight of his legions crossing the river in a flotilla of little boats was not the image he wanted to leave with the Germans. With 80 shops carrying two legions and with further naval support, Caesar set out in the early h… Caesar was so anxious to set sail during a break in the stormy weather that he weighed anchor with only his infantry, giving orders for the cavalry to follow immediately. He begins his description with the different types of people found on the island: The parts of Britain far from the sea are inhabited by tribes who claim to be indigenous, but those along the coast are recent migrants from Belgic Gaul who came for profit and war. Dumnorix refused and shouted as they cut him down: His words would soon become a rallying cry for all of Gaul. Peasants were rounded up, war chariots made ready, arms burnished and sharpened. His early invasion of Britain to the final siege of Alesia, a great story of Roman arms. Convinced now that a new 'province' would soon be added to the Roman Empire, a motley group of opportunists, treasure-seekers, and adventurers joined Caesar's second invasion force. As the fury of the gale mounted, the ships were driven back towards France, and by the time darkness came, all had disappeared from sight. Gaius Volusenus, the first Roman to see Britain, allowed a single warship to scout the Kent coast for five days. It was now that the southern British kings, long resentful of Cassivellaunus, began to come forward and seek peace with Caesar. His men had built six hundred transport vessels and twenty-eight ships designed for naval combat—a virtual armada that would soon carry over twenty thousand men to Britain. When the messenger bearing news from the north arrived at Caesar’s headquarters in Italy, he broke the seal and quickly read the dispatch. By the summer of 55 bc, 45-year-old Roman proconsul Gaius Julius Caesar was a veteran military campaigner. RISE OF JULIUS CAESAR . after the term of Marcellinus had expired. These ships made a valiant effort to reach their commander, though after enduring a tempestuous night in the channel they abandoned the attempt and also returned to Gaul. But the most crushing blow to Caesar that autumn of 54 B.C. 3:01. Caesar invaded Britain in 55 BCE 'Before common era', the non-religious way of saying 'BC' (which means 'before Christ'). This may well be true since there are countless tales of sacred birds in Celtic mythology. Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC. The most famous Roman of them all was a soldier, statesman and, crucially, an author. Caesar was now north of the Thames (probably near modern Heathrow Airport) but Cassivellaunus still commanded a sizeable force to oppose him. The busy soldiers were suddenly surrounded by thousands of native warriors circling them on horseback and in chariots, hurling spears at the Romans all the while. Caesar arrived within a few weeks, on an early autumn morning. Caesar did not want a repeat of either the interminable Veneti campaign or his disastrous landing the previous summer in Britain. That done, Caesar ordered his men to dig themselves in behind earthen ramparts and wait for the Britons to attack in force. During this tour he learned that an Alpine tribe called the Pirustae were raiding his nearby province of Illyricum. After 125 years, we take a look at som... Have a look at this wonderful footage of Christmas in London in 1955. Julius Caesar was the first person to have his own bust (face and neck) printed on a Roman coin. On the first occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and achieved little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent. But recently he had decided to include Caesar himself in his biting satire: Mamurra bent over and wretched Caesar behind. Caesar had no plans to conquer Germany, but if he could be the first general to raise the standards of the legions on the far side of the Rhine, he would go down in history. “Caesar as Political Propagandist.” ANRW 1.1: 922–966. These were brought to the riverbank, where rafts fitted with hoists and cranes were waiting. The Romans had been building substantial bridges for many centuries, but what Caesar was proposing was unprecedented. Julius Caesar's writings on Celtic sacrifices: He wrote: "The whole nation of the Gauls is greatly devoted to ritual observances, and for that reason those who are smitten with the more grievous maladies and who are engaged in the perils of battle either sacrifice human victims or vow so to do, employing the druids as ministers for such sacrifices. This united front made Caesar’s job much more difficult, but he was determined to crush all resistance in the south before returning to Gaul for the winter. Based on new evidence, the team suggests that the first landing of Julius Caesar's fleet in Britain took place in 54BC at Pegwell Bay on the Isle of Thanet, the north-east point of Kent. Caesar soon received an embassy from the Germans declaring that they had no wish to fight him, but that they were not a people who avoided armed conflict when it was thrust upon them. The further the Romans advanced, the further the Britons retreated, drawing the invaders deeper and deeper into the forest. Caesar satisfied himself with burning their empty villages and razing their crops. The Britons let them wait. The few transports that were still in working order were dispatched to Gaul to bring supplies, sails, rigging, and anchors. They now faced a long, cold winter in Britain with few supplies and little food, surrounded by hostile tribes who could pick them off at their leisure. We later learn the tribunes are condemned to death for their actions. There was no time either for proper reconnaissance of the island, for gathering information about the nature and size of the country, its harbours and the methods of fighting used by its inhabitants. En route he was captured by pirates (one of the symptoms of the anarchy into which the Roman nobility had allowed the Mediterranean world to fall). Everything you need to know about Eleanor of Aquitaine, Everything you need to know about Winston Churchill. Caesar also mentions that the Britons used coins, again confirmed by archaeology, and that their weather was more moderate than that of Gaul (thanks to the then unknown Gulf Stream). The Romans had heard about war chariots from the ancient tales of Homer, but they were terrified to see such a weapon actually being used against them. Without her, they feared—or hoped—the days of the triumvirate were numbered. Some 30 miles across the water lay an island, which, according to travellers' tales was rich in pearls, lead, gold, and tin. Caesar should have learned more about the fury of the ocean from his war with the Veneti, but all he could do now was watch his precious ships battered against rocks and each other. It was probably during his journey back to Gaul in the spring of 54 B.C. In the late summer of 55 BC, Julius Caesar stood on the north coast of France and looked out over the Channel. In the decades since the Cimbri and Teutones had threatened to overrun Italy, the barbaric Germans had become the ultimate bogymen in the Roman imagination. Any doubters in the Roman camp, however, did not reckon on Caesar’s own engineering skills and his talent for accomplishing seemingly impossible tasks. Some 30 miles across the water lay an island, which, according to travellers' tales was rich in pearls, lead, gold, and tin. It was only a matter of time, Caesar feared, until the whole country would explode. Having set his legions to work on the English Channel constructing his new fleet, Caesar quickly made his way south to his Italian province for the winter. He had long been a friend of the influential family of the poet Catullus in Verona. The drivers did not charge into the Roman ranks, but instead created an unnerving noise and confusion rushing past the troops while the warriors they carried cast spears into their lines. However, as events unfolded, no Roman soldier would touch British soil again for almost a century. Caesar himself was determined to make a frightening example of these marauding tribesmen so that no others would be tempted to cross the Rhine. Adrian Goldsworthy 2006. Autumn gales were already blowing around the coast and the winds were frothing up dangerously choppy seas when the Roman ships weighed anchor and sailed for France. Some ended up back on the Gaulish coast, while a few were driven far to the west of Caesar’s position. Read more: Everything you need to know about Eleanor of Aquitaine. But he knew his position in Britain was tenuous at best, since winter was fast approaching and he had no cavalry support. A disappointed and angry Caesar was obliged to abandon the pursuit of his elusive enemy and return to the beach to survey the damage. He therefore accepted the surrender of the British and only demanded hostages from their tribes. His father was also named Gaius Julius Caesar, and his mother was called Aurelia Cotta. Julius Caesar - Julius Caesar - The first triumvirate and the conquest of Gaul: The value of the consulship lay in the lucrative provincial governorship to which it would normally lead. Caesar was a member of the deeply patrician Julii family with roots dating to the foundation of the city itself. The tribe had been a thorn in Caesar’s side since his conflict with Ariovistus and now they were pushing other Germans into the still-troubled lands of the Belgae. In part of his writings Caesar … Cato was still venomous in his opposition to Caesar, but with the conqueror of Gaul wrapped in his proconsular immunity, the leader of the optimates was unable to strike at him directly. Finally, Caesar claims that on their native farms, up to a dozen related men could live in a communal lifestyle freely sharing wives. Immediately Caesar himself and a handful of troops stormed out of the camp and ran towards the fields. When the pursuers caught up with Dumnorix, they surrounded him and ordered his surrender. Caesar dedicated the work with genuine admiration—and perhaps a touch of irony—to the loquacious Cicero. A vast amount has been written about the Roman Empire and its most popular Emperor, Julius Caesar, but very little was recorded about his two invasions of Britain. He also was keenly interested in variations of daylight hours according to latitude and so imported from Gaul a clepsydra—an ingenious water clock used by the ancients to measure time in all weather, day or night. But no one—until Caesar—had ever considered the possibility of actually taking the fight to the Germans. Caesar negotiated a treaty imperiously, almost as if he had won a great victory. Britain could easily become a major inspiration and source of support for Gaulish rebels. While the men of the X Legion began this repair work, their colleagues of the VII went foraging for food. He then headed seven miles up the coast of Kent to a level stretch of beach that seemed more suitable for landing his troops, probably around present-day Deal. Julius Caesar’s defining moment was when he crossed the Rubicon, a river that bordered Rome, and led an army into Rome to take over the government. Caesar had a few pieces of information about Britain brought back over the previous five hundred years by those few voyagers who had managed to travel there and return. I at least am going to do my duty for my country and general.” He then leaped into the water and began struggling to shore. Caesar left Sicily for the shores of Africa with seven legions, totaling about 30,000 men and 2,600 cavalry in late December 47 BC. With a heavy load of equipment on their backs and the waves knocking them off balance, the Romans were no match for the British cavalry. Caesar, who had been directing the battle from a nearby ship, at last set foot on British soil and surveyed the dismal scene. This action secured several extra months for the triumvirate to plan a strategy of intimidation and dirty tricks to overcome their opposition. Caesar's Gallic War consists of seven parts ("books"), each devoted to one year of campaigning.The first book covers the year 58 BCE: it opens with the war against the Helvetians, continues with a victorious battle against a Germanic army, and culminates in the modest remark that Caesar had concluded two very important wars in a single campaign. As events would soon reveal, the young man did a rather poor job since he was afraid to leave his ship. The one reason Caesar doesn’t give for crossing the Rhine was probably the most compelling of all—it would be a spectacular publicity stunt. The Suebi scouts watching from the opposite bank were amazed by what they saw and rushed to report the news to their chieftains. This impressive sight must have awed the general and his troops, until they drew closer to shore and noticed the thousands of British warriors gathered along the top of the cliffs for miles in each direction. Home. We can be certain that however little Caesar knew of the Britons before his first expedition, the inhabitants of at least the southern part of the island were well aware of Rome. They came across one large field that was still uncut, so the soldiers set to work harvesting grain. It was an unnerving sight for the would-be invaders, and by the time the galleys were as close to the beach as their size would allow, even the courageous X Legion, Caesar's favourite, was apprehensive. It was nearly midnight, but Caesar set off immediately and marched through the moonlit forests and marshes of Kent towards Canterbury. The Celts' goodwill, however, was soon seen to vanish when an unexpected but powerful ally came to their aid, the British weather. The two became frequent correspondents during Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul and Britain. The optimate leader claimed that Caesar had in fact provoked the wrath of the gods by attacking the Usipetes and Tencteri during a truce and therefore should be handed over to the Germans themselves for punishment. He then destroyed the bridge to prevent any enemy from using it and left the dark forests of Germany behind him. One surviving fragment of the book puts it bluntly: “Avoid strange and unfamiliar words as a sailor avoids rocks at sea.” The fact that he was able to dictate this work to secretaries while riding on horseback or jostling in a cart in the midst of pressing military duties makes the book all the more remarkable. Caesar knew very well that Dumnorix was a courageous and influential man bent on seizing power for himself in Gaul if given half a chance. The project has involved surveys of hillforts that may have been attacked by Caesar, studies in museums of objects that may have been made or buried … First, he wanted to demonstrate to the German tribes that the Romans were willing and able to enter their homeland whenever they might choose. The violation was a minor technicality, but Marcellinus was determined to thwart the triumvirate’s agenda as long as he held the consulship. As Domitius and Cato worked to secure last-minute votes the night before the election, Pompey ordered his well-paid thugs to attack the optimate leaders in the dark streets, wounding Cato and killing his torchbearer, while Domitius fled to the safety of his own home. Because of these troubling developments Caesar decided to depart northern Italy while snow still covered the Alps. The next day Caesar resumed his march toward the German camp and again met a German embassy beseeching him to wait. Collingwood describes in preface the exact goal of his writings as to, begin with Julius Caesar’s first reconnaissance mission, analyze the state of the isle and its people during 55 and 54 B.C. But after almost three weeks of marching unopposed through the German countryside, Caesar felt he had made his point. He came with 80 transports and the X and VII Legions, but without his cavalry, whose ships had been trapped in France by savage Channel winds. The only way for explorers or merchants to reach the island before Caesar was a long and dangerous trek across Gaul or an even longer and more perilous voyage through the Pillars of Hercules, up the Iberian and Gaulish coasts, and finally across the stormy English Channel. Pompey and Crassus, undoubtedly with Caesar’s collusion, responded by hiring a tribune of the plebs to veto the entire election process for the year so that no one could be chosen for any office.